[[gsl::suppress("tag")]]

[[gsl::suppress("tag", justification: "message")]]

class Date {
public:
    Month month() const;  // do
    int month();          // don't
    // ...
};

void f(vector<string>& v)
{
    string val;
    cin >> val;
    // ...
    int index = -1;                    // bad, plus should use gsl::index
    for (int i = 0; i < v.size(); ++i) {
        if (v[i] == val) {
            index = i;
            break;
        }
    }
    // ...
}

void f(vector<string>& v)
{
    string val;
    cin >> val;
    // ...
    auto p = find(begin(v), end(v), val);  // better
    // ...
}

change_speed(double s);   // bad: what does s signify?
// ...
change_speed(2.3);

change_speed(Speed s);    // better: the meaning of s is specified
// ...
change_speed(2.3);        // error: no unit
change_speed(23_m / 10s);  // meters per second

gsl::index i = 0;
while (i < v.size()) {
    // ... do something with v[i] ...
}

for (const auto& x : v) { /* do something with the value of x */ }

for (auto& x : v) { /* modify x */ }

for_each(v, [](int x) { /* do something with the value of x */ });
for_each(par, v, [](int x) { /* do something with the value of x */ });

draw_line(int, int, int, int);  // obscure: (x1,y1,x2,y2)? (x,y,h,w)? ...?
                                // need to look up documentation to know

draw_line(Point, Point);        // clearer

// Int is an alias used for integers
int bits = 0;         // don't: avoidable code
for (Int i = 1; i; i <<= 1)
    ++bits;
if (bits < 32)
    cerr << "Int too small\n";

// Int is an alias used for integers
static_assert(sizeof(Int) >= 4);    // do: compile-time check

void read(int* p, int n);   // read max n integers into *p

int a[100];
read(a, 1000);    // bad, off the end

void read(span<int> r); // read into the range of integers r

int a[100];
read(a);        // better: let the compiler figure out the number of elements

// separately compiled, possibly dynamically loaded
extern void f(int* p);

void g(int n)
{
    // bad: the number of elements is not passed to f()
    f(new int[n]);
}

// separately compiled, possibly dynamically loaded
extern void f2(int* p, int n);

void g2(int n)
{
    f2(new int[n], m);  // bad: a wrong number of elements can be passed to f()
}

// separately compiled, possibly dynamically loaded
// NB: this assumes the calling code is ABI-compatible, using a
// compatible C++ compiler and the same stdlib implementation
extern void f3(unique_ptr<int[]>, int n);

void g3(int n)
{
    f3(make_unique<int[]>(n), m);    // bad: pass ownership and size separately
}

extern void f4(vector<int>&);   // separately compiled, possibly dynamically loaded
extern void f4(span<int>);      // separately compiled, possibly dynamically loaded
                                // NB: this assumes the calling code is ABI-compatible, using a
                                // compatible C++ compiler and the same stdlib implementation

void g3(int n)
{
    vector<int> v(n);
    f4(v);                     // pass a reference, retain ownership
    f4(span<int>{v});          // pass a view, retain ownership
}

vector<int> f5(int n)    // OK: move
{
    vector<int> v(n);
    // ... initialize v ...
    return v;
}

unique_ptr<int[]> f6(int n)    // bad: loses n
{
    auto p = make_unique<int[]>(n);
    // ... initialize *p ...
    return p;
}

owner<int*> f7(int n)    // bad: loses n and we might forget to delete
{
    owner<int*> p = new int[n];
    // ... initialize *p ...
    return p;
}

void increment1(int* p, int n)    // bad: error-prone
{
    for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) ++p[i];
}

void use1(int m)
{
    const int n = 10;
    int a[n] = {};
    // ...
    increment1(a, m);   // maybe typo, maybe m <= n is supposed
                        // but assume that m == 20
    // ...
}

void increment2(span<int> p)
{
    for (int& x : p) ++x;
}

void use2(int m)
{
    const int n = 10;
    int a[n] = {};
    // ...
    increment2({a, m});    // maybe typo, maybe m <= n is supposed
    // ...
}

void use3(int m)
{
    const int n = 10;
    int a[n] = {};
    // ...
    increment2(a);   // the number of elements of a need not be repeated
    // ...
}

Date read_date(istream& is);    // read date from istream

Date extract_date(const string& s);    // extract date from string

void user1(const string& date)    // manipulate date
{
    auto d = extract_date(date);
    // ...
}

void user2()
{
    Date d = read_date(cin);
    // ...
    user1(d.to_string());
    // ...
}

class Jet {    // Physics says: e * e < x * x + y * y + z * z
    float x;
    float y;
    float z;
    float e;
public:
    Jet(float x, float y, float z, float e)
        :x(x), y(y), z(z), e(e)
    {
        // Should I check here that the values are physically meaningful?
    }

    float m() const
    {
        // Should I handle the degenerate case here?
        return sqrt(x * x + y * y + z * z - e * e);
    }

    ???
};

void f(char* name)
{
    FILE* input = fopen(name, "r");
    // ...
    if (something) return;   // bad: if something == true, a file handle is leaked
    // ...
    fclose(input);
}

void f(char* name)
{
    ifstream input {name};
    // ...
    if (something) return;   // OK: no leak
    // ...
}

struct X {
    char ch;
    int i;
    string s;
    char ch2;

    X& operator=(const X& a);
    X(const X&);
};

X waste(const char* p)
{
    if (!p) throw Nullptr_error{};
    int n = strlen(p);
    auto buf = new char[n];
    if (!buf) throw Allocation_error{};
    for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) buf[i] = p[i];
    // ... manipulate buffer ...
    X x;
    x.ch = 'a';
    x.s = string(n);    // give x.s space for *p
    for (gsl::index i = 0; i < x.s.size(); ++i) x.s[i] = buf[i];  // copy buf into x.s
    delete[] buf;
    return x;
}

void driver()
{
    X x = waste("Typical argument");
    // ...
}

void lower(zstring s)
{
    for (int i = 0; i < strlen(s); ++i) s[i] = tolower(s[i]);
}

int sz = 100;
int* p = (int*) malloc(sizeof(int) * sz);
int count = 0;
// ...
for (;;) {
    // ... read an int into x, exit loop if end of file is reached ...
    // ... check that x is valid ...
    if (count == sz)
        p = (int*) realloc(p, sizeof(int) * sz * 2);
    p[count++] = x;
    // ...
}

vector<int> v;
v.reserve(100);
// ...
for (int x; cin >> x; ) {
    // ... check that x is valid ...
    v.push_back(x);
}

std::sort(begin(v), end(v), std::greater<>());

int round(double d)
{
    return (round_up) ? ceil(d) : d;    // don't: "invisible" dependency
}

// don't: no test of fprintf's return value
fprintf(connection, "logging: %d %d %d\n", x, y, s);

struct Data {
    // ... lots of stuff ...
} data;            // non-const data

void compute()     // don't
{
    // ... use data ...
}

void output()     // don't
{
    // ... use data ...
}

class Singleton {
    // ... lots of stuff to ensure that only one Singleton object is created,
    // that it is initialized properly, etc.
};

X& myX()
{
    static X my_x {3};
    return my_x;
}

X& myX()
{
    static auto p = new X {3};
    return *p;  // potential leak
}

void pass(void* data);    // weak and under-qualified type void* is suspicious

draw_rect(100, 200, 100, 500); // what do the numbers specify?

draw_rect(p.x, p.y, 10, 20); // what units are 10 and 20 in?

void draw_rectangle(Point top_left, Point bottom_right);
void draw_rectangle(Point top_left, Size height_width);

draw_rectangle(p, Point{10, 20});  // two corners
draw_rectangle(p, Size{10, 20});   // one corner and a (height, width) pair

set_settings(true, false, 42); // what do the numbers specify?

alarm_settings s{};
s.enabled = true;
s.displayMode = alarm_settings::mode::spinning_light;
s.frequency = alarm_settings::every_10_seconds;
set_settings(s);

enable_lamp_options(lamp_option::on | lamp_option::animate_state_transitions);

void blink_led(int time_to_blink) // bad -- the unit is ambiguous
{
    // ...
    // do something with time_to_blink
    // ...
}

void use()
{
    blink_led(2);
}

void blink_led(milliseconds time_to_blink) // good -- the unit is explicit
{
    // ...
    // do something with time_to_blink
    // ...
}

void use()
{
    blink_led(1500ms);
}

template<class rep, class period>
void blink_led(duration<rep, period> time_to_blink) // good -- accepts any unit
{
    // assuming that millisecond is the smallest relevant unit
    auto milliseconds_to_blink = duration_cast<milliseconds>(time_to_blink);
    // ...
    // do something with milliseconds_to_blink
    // ...
}

void use()
{
    blink_led(2s);
    blink_led(1500ms);
}

double sqrt(double x);

double sqrt(double x); // x must be non-negative

double sqrt(double x) { Expects(x >= 0); /* ... */ }

int area(int height, int width)
{
    Expects(height > 0 && width > 0);            // good
    if (height <= 0 || width <= 0) my_error();   // obscure
    // ...
}

int area(int height, int width) { return height * width; }  // bad

int area(int height, int width)
{
    auto res = height * width;
    Ensures(res > 0);
    return res;
}

void f()    // problematic
{
    char buffer[MAX];
    // ...
    memset(buffer, 0, sizeof(buffer));
}

void f()    // better
{
    char buffer[MAX];
    // ...
    memset(buffer, 0, sizeof(buffer));
    Ensures(buffer[0] == 0);
}

mutex m;

void manipulate(Record& r)    // don't
{
    m.lock();
    // ... no m.unlock() ...
}

void manipulate(Record& r)    // postcondition: m is unlocked upon exit
{
    m.lock();
    // ... no m.unlock() ...
}

void manipulate(Record& r)    // best
{
    lock_guard<mutex> _ {m};
    // ...
}

void f()
{
    char buffer[MAX];
    // ...
    memset(buffer, 0, MAX);
    Ensures(buffer[0] == 0);
}

template<typename Iter, typename Val>
  requires input_iterator<Iter> && equality_comparable_with<iter_value_t<Iter>, Val>
Iter find(Iter first, Iter last, Val v)
{
    // ...
}

int printf(const char* ...);    // bad: return negative number if output fails

template<class F, class ...Args>
// good: throw system_error if unable to start the new thread
explicit thread(F&& f, Args&&... args);

int val;
int error_code;
tie(val, error_code) = do_something();
if (error_code) {
    // ... handle the error or exit ...
}
// ... use val ...

auto [val, error_code] = do_something();
if (error_code) {
    // ... handle the error or exit ...
}
// ... use val ...

X* compute(args)    // don't
{
    X* res = new X{};
    // ...
    return res;
}

vector<double> compute(args)  // good
{
    vector<double> res(10000);
    // ...
    return res;
}

owner<X*> compute(args)    // It is now clear that ownership is transferred
{
    owner<X*> res = new X{};
    // ...
    return res;
}

int length(const char* p);            // it is not clear whether length(nullptr) is valid

length(nullptr);                      // OK?

int length(not_null<const char*> p);  // better: we can assume that p cannot be nullptr

int length(const char* p);            // we must assume that p can be nullptr

// we can assume that p cannot be nullptr
// we can assume that p points to a zero-terminated array of characters
int length(not_null<czstring> p);

void copy_n(const T* p, T* q, int n); // copy from [p:p+n) to [q:q+n)

void copy(span<const T> r, span<T> r2); // copy r to r2

void draw(Shape* p, int n);  // poor interface; poor code
Circle arr[10];
// ...
draw(arr, 10);

void draw2(span<Circle>);
Circle arr[10];
// ...
draw2(span<Circle>(arr));  // deduce the number of elements
draw2(arr);    // deduce the element type and array size

void draw3(span<Shape>);
draw3(arr);    // error: cannot convert Circle[10] to span<Shape>

// file1.c

extern const X x;

const Y y = f(x);   // read x; write y

// file2.c

extern const Y y;

const X x = g(y);   // read y; write x

template<class InputIterator1, class InputIterator2, class OutputIterator, class Compare>
OutputIterator merge(InputIterator1 first1, InputIterator1 last1,
                     InputIterator2 first2, InputIterator2 last2,
                     OutputIterator result, Compare comp);

template<class InputIterator1, class InputIterator2, class OutputIterator>
OutputIterator merge(InputIterator1 first1, InputIterator1 last1,
                     InputIterator2 first2, InputIterator2 last2,
                     OutputIterator result);

template<class InputRange1, class InputRange2, class OutputIterator>
OutputIterator merge(InputRange1 r1, InputRange2 r2, OutputIterator result);

template<class In1, class In2, class Out>
  requires mergeable<In1, In2, Out>
Out merge(In1 r1, In2 r2, Out result);

void f(int* some_ints, int some_ints_length);  // BAD: C style, unsafe

void f(gsl::span<int> some_ints);              // GOOD: safe, bounds-checked

void copy_n(T* p, T* q, int n);  // copy from [p:p + n) to [q:q + n)

void copy_n(const T* p, T* q, int n);  // copy from [p:p + n) to [q:q + n)

int max(int a, int b);

void copy_n(span<const T> p, span<T> q);  // copy from p to q

struct SystemParams {
    string config_file;
    string output_path;
    seconds timeout;
};
void initialize(SystemParams p);

class Shape {  // bad: interface class loaded with data
public:
    Point center() const { return c; }
    virtual void draw() const;
    virtual void rotate(int);
    // ...
private:
    Point c;
    vector<Point> outline;
    Color col;
};

class Shape {    // better: Shape is a pure interface
public:
    virtual Point center() const = 0;   // pure virtual functions
    virtual void draw() const = 0;
    virtual void rotate(int) = 0;
    // ...
    // ... no data members ...
    // ...
    virtual ~Shape() = default;
};

class widget {
    class impl;
    std::unique_ptr<impl> pimpl;
public:
    void draw(); // public API that will be forwarded to the implementation
    widget(int); // defined in the implementation file
    ~widget();   // defined in the implementation file, where impl is a complete type
    widget(widget&&) noexcept; // defined in the implementation file
    widget(const widget&) = delete;
    widget& operator=(widget&&) noexcept; // defined in the implementation file
    widget& operator=(const widget&) = delete;
};

class widget::impl {
    int n; // private data
public:
    void draw(const widget& w) { /* ... */ }
    impl(int n) : n(n) {}
};
void widget::draw() { pimpl->draw(*this); }
widget::widget(int n) : pimpl{std::make_unique<impl>(n)} {}
widget::widget(widget&&) noexcept = default;
widget::~widget() = default;
widget& widget::operator=(widget&&) noexcept = default;

bool owned;
owner<istream*> inp;
switch (source) {
case std_in:        owned = false; inp = &cin;                       break;
case command_line:  owned = true;  inp = new istringstream{argv[2]}; break;
case file:          owned = true;  inp = new ifstream{argv[2]};      break;
}
istream& in = *inp;

if (owned) delete inp;

class Istream { [[gsl::suppress("lifetime")]]
public:
    enum Opt { from_line = 1 };
    Istream() { }
    Istream(czstring p) : owned{true}, inp{new ifstream{p}} {}            // read from file
    Istream(czstring p, Opt) : owned{true}, inp{new istringstream{p}} {}  // read from command line
    ~Istream() { if (owned) delete inp; }
    operator istream&() { return *inp; }
private:
    bool owned = false;
    istream* inp = &cin;
};

void read_and_print(istream& is)    // read and print an int
{
    int x;
    if (is >> x)
        cout << "the int is " << x << '\n';
    else
        cerr << "no int on input\n";
}

sort(a, b, [](T x, T y) { return x.rank() < y.rank() && x.value() < y.value(); });

auto lessT = [](T x, T y) { return x.rank() < y.rank() && x.value() < y.value(); };

sort(a, b, lessT);

void read_and_print()    // bad
{
    int x;
    cin >> x;
    // check for errors
    cout << x << "\n";
}

int read(istream& is)    // better
{
    int x;
    is >> x;
    // check for errors
    return x;
}

void print(ostream& os, int x)
{
    os << x << "\n";
}

void read_and_print()
{
    auto x = read(cin);
    print(cout, x);
}

auto read = [](auto& input, auto& value)    // better
{
    input >> value;
    // check for errors
};

void print(auto& output, const auto& value)
{
    output << value << "\n";
}

double simple_func(double val, int flag1, int flag2)
    // simple_func: takes a value and calculates the expected ASIC output,
    // given the two mode flags.
{
    double intermediate;
    if (flag1 > 0) {
        intermediate = func1(val);
        if (flag2 % 2)
             intermediate = sqrt(intermediate);
    }
    else if (flag1 == -1) {
        intermediate = func1(-val);
        if (flag2 % 2)
             intermediate = sqrt(-intermediate);
        flag1 = -flag1;
    }
    if (abs(flag2) > 10) {
        intermediate = func2(intermediate);
    }
    switch (flag2 / 10) {
    case 1: if (flag1 == -1) return finalize(intermediate, 1.171);
            break;
    case 2: return finalize(intermediate, 13.1);
    default: break;
    }
    return finalize(intermediate, 0.);
}

double func1_muon(double val, int flag)
{
    // ???
}

double func1_tau(double val, int flag1, int flag2)
{
    // ???
}

double simple_func(double val, int flag1, int flag2)
    // simple_func: takes a value and calculates the expected ASIC output,
    // given the two mode flags.
{
    if (flag1 > 0)
        return func1_muon(val, flag2);
    if (flag1 == -1)
        // handled by func1_tau: flag1 = -flag1;
        return func1_tau(-val, flag1, flag2);
    return 0.;
}

constexpr int fac(int n)
{
    constexpr int max_exp = 17;      // constexpr enables max_exp to be used in Expects
    Expects(0 <= n && n < max_exp);  // prevent silliness and overflow
    int x = 1;
    for (int i = 2; i <= n; ++i) x *= i;
    return x;
}

constexpr int min(int x, int y) { return x < y ? x : y; }

void test(int v)
{
    int m1 = min(-1, 2);            // probably compile-time evaluation
    constexpr int m2 = min(-1, 2);  // compile-time evaluation
    int m3 = min(-1, v);            // run-time evaluation
    constexpr int m4 = min(-1, v);  // error: cannot evaluate at compile time
}

inline string cat(const string& s, const string& s2) { return s + s2; }

vector<string> collect(istream& is) noexcept
{
    vector<string> res;
    for (string s; is >> s;)
        res.push_back(s);
    return res;
}

// accepts any int*
void f(int*);

// can only accept ints for which you want to transfer ownership
void g(unique_ptr<int>);

// can only accept ints for which you are willing to share ownership
void g(shared_ptr<int>);

// doesn't change ownership, but requires a particular ownership of the caller
void h(const unique_ptr<int>&);

// accepts any int
void h(int&);

// callee
void f(shared_ptr<widget>& w)
{
    // ...
    use(*w); // only use of w -- the lifetime is not used at all
    // ...
};

// caller
shared_ptr<widget> my_widget = /* ... */;
f(my_widget);

widget stack_widget;
f(stack_widget); // error

// callee
void f(widget& w)
{
    // ...
    use(w);
    // ...
};

// caller
shared_ptr<widget> my_widget = /* ... */;
f(*my_widget);

widget stack_widget;
f(stack_widget); // ok -- now this works

template<class T>
auto square(T t) { return t * t; }

widget* find(const set<widget>& s, const widget& w, Hint);   // once upon a time, a hint was used

template <typename Value>
Value* find(const set<Value>& s, const Value& v, [[maybe_unused]] Hint h)
{
    if constexpr (sizeof(Value) > CacheSize)
    {
        // a hint is used only if Value is of a certain size
    }
}

struct Rec {
    string name;
    string addr;
    int id;         // unique identifier
};

bool same(const Rec& a, const Rec& b)
{
    return a.id == b.id;
}

vector<Rec*> find_id(const string& name);    // find all records for "name"

auto x = find_if(vr.begin(), vr.end(),
    [&](Rec& r) {
        if (r.name.size() != n.size()) return false; // name to compare to is in n
        for (int i = 0; i < r.name.size(); ++i)
            if (tolower(r.name[i]) != tolower(n[i])) return false;
        return true;
    }
);

bool compare_insensitive(const string& a, const string& b)
{
    if (a.size() != b.size()) return false;
    for (int i = 0; i < a.size(); ++i) if (tolower(a[i]) != tolower(b[i])) return false;
    return true;
}

auto x = find_if(vr.begin(), vr.end(),
    [&](Rec& r) { return compare_insensitive(r.name, n); }
);

auto cmp_to_n = [&n](const string& a) { return compare_insensitive(a, n); };

auto x = find_if(vr.begin(), vr.end(),
    [](const Rec& r) { return cmp_to_n(r.name); }
);

auto earlyUsersEnd = std::remove_if(users.begin(), users.end(),
                                    [](const User &a) { return a.id > 100; });

void f1(const string& s);  // OK: pass by reference to const; always cheap

void f2(string s);         // bad: potentially expensive

void f3(int x);            // OK: Unbeatable

void f4(const int& x);     // bad: overhead on access in f4()

int multiply(int, int); // just input ints, pass by value

// suffix is input-only but not as cheap as an int, pass by const&
string& concatenate(string&, const string& suffix);

void sink(unique_ptr<widget>);  // input only, and moves ownership of the widget

void update(Record& r);  // assume that update writes to r

void increment_all(span<int> a)
{
  for (auto&& e : a)
    ++e;
}

void f(string& s)
{
    s = "New York";  // non-obvious error
}

void g()
{
    string buffer = ".................................";
    f(buffer);
    // ...
}

void sink(vector<int>&& v)  // sink takes ownership of whatever the argument owned
{
    // usually there might be const accesses of v here
    store_somewhere(std::move(v));
    // usually no more use of v here; it is moved-from
}

template<class T>
void sink(std::unique_ptr<T> p)
{
    // use p ... possibly std::move(p) onward somewhere else
}   // p gets destroyed

template<class F, class... Args>
inline decltype(auto) invoke(F&& f, Args&&... args)
{
    return forward<F>(f)(forward<Args>(args)...);
}

template<class PairLike>
inline auto test(PairLike&& pairlike)
{
    // ...
    f1(some, args, and, forward<PairLike>(pairlike).first);           // forward .first
    f2(and, forward<PairLike>(pairlike).second, in, another, call);   // forward .second
}

// OK: return pointers to elements with the value x
vector<const int*> find_all(const vector<int>&, int x);

// Bad: place pointers to elements with value x in-out
void find_all(const vector<int>&, vector<const int*>& out, int x);

Matrix operator+(const Matrix& a, const Matrix& b)
{
    Matrix res;
    // ... fill res with the sum ...
    return res;
}

Matrix x = m1 + m2;  // move constructor

y = m3 + m3;         // move assignment

struct Package {      // exceptional case: expensive-to-move object
    char header[16];
    char load[2024 - 16];
};

Package fill();       // Bad: large return value
void fill(Package&);  // OK

int val();            // OK
void val(int&);       // Bad: Is val reading its argument

// BAD: output-only parameter documented in a comment
int f(const string& input, /*output only*/ string& output_data)
{
    // ...
    output_data = something();
    return status;
}

// GOOD: self-documenting
struct f_result { int status; string data; };

f_result f(const string& input)
{
    // ...
    return {status, something()};
}

// C++98
pair<set::iterator, bool> result = my_set.insert("Hello");
if (result.second)
    do_something_with(result.first);    // workaround

if (auto [ iter, success ] = my_set.insert("Hello"); success)
    do_something_with(iter);

istream& operator>>(istream& in, string& s);    // much like std::operator>>()

for (string s; in >> s; ) {
    // do something with line
}

struct get_string_result { istream& in; string s; };

get_string_result get_string(istream& in)  // not recommended
{
    string s;
    in >> s;
    return { in, move(s) };
}

for (auto [in, s] = get_string(cin); in; s = get_string(in).s) {
    // do something with string
}

struct Distance {
    int value;
    int unit = 1;   // 1 means meters
};

Distance d1 = measure(obj1);        // access d1.value and d1.unit
auto d2 = measure(obj2);            // access d2.value and d2.unit
auto [value, unit] = measure(obj3); // access value and unit; somewhat redundant
                                    // to people who know measure()
auto [x, y] = measure(obj4);        // don't; it's likely to be confusing

pair<LargeObject, LargeObject> f(const string& input)
{
    LargeObject large1 = g(input);
    LargeObject large2 = h(input);
    // ...
    return { move(large1), move(large2) }; // no copies
}

pair<LargeObject, LargeObject> f(const string& input)
{
    // ...
    return { g(input), h(input) }; // no copies, no moves
}

string zstring_to_string(zstring p) // zstring is a char*; that is a C-style string
{
    if (!p) return string{};    // p might be nullptr; remember to check
    return string{p};
}

void print(const vector<int>& r)
{
    // r refers to a vector<int>; no check needed
}

void use(int* p, int n, char* s, int* q)
{
    p[n - 1] = 666; // Bad: we don't know if p points to n elements;
                    // assume it does not or use span<int>
    cout << s;      // Bad: we don't know if that s points to a zero-terminated array of char;
                    // assume it does not or use zstring
    delete q;       // Bad: we don't know if *q is allocated on the free store;
                    // assume it does not or use owner
}

void use2(span<int> p, zstring s, owner<int*> q)
{
    p[p.size() - 1] = 666; // OK, a range error can be caught
    cout << s; // OK
    delete q;  // OK
}

int length(Record* p);

// it is the caller's job to make sure p != nullptr
int length(not_null<Record*> p);

// the implementor of length() must assume that p == nullptr is possible
int length(Record* p);

X* find(span<X> r, const X& v);    // find v in r

vector<X> vec;
// ...
auto p = find({vec.begin(), vec.end()}, X{});  // find X{} in vec

void f(span<int> s)
{
    // range traversal (guaranteed correct)
    for (int x : s) cout << x << '\n';

    // C-style traversal (potentially checked)
    for (gsl::index i = 0; i < s.size(); ++i) cout << s[i] << '\n';

    // random access (potentially checked)
    s[7] = 9;

    // extract pointers (potentially checked)
    std::sort(&s[0], &s[s.size() / 2]);
}

int length(const char* p);

// the implementor of length() must assume that p == nullptr is possible
int length(zstring p);

// it is the caller's job to make sure p != nullptr
int length(not_null<zstring> p);

unique_ptr<Shape> get_shape(istream& is)  // assemble shape from input stream
{
    auto kind = read_header(is); // read header and identify the next shape on input
    switch (kind) {
    case kCircle:
        return make_unique<Circle>(is);
    case kTriangle:
        return make_unique<Triangle>(is);
    // ...
    }
}

{
    shared_ptr<const Image> im { read_image(somewhere) };

    std::thread t0 {shade, args0, top_left, im};
    std::thread t1 {shade, args1, top_right, im};
    std::thread t2 {shade, args2, bottom_left, im};
    std::thread t3 {shade, args3, bottom_right, im};

    // detaching threads requires extra care (e.g., to join before
    // main ends), but even if we do detach the four threads here ...
}
// ... shared_ptr ensures that eventually the last thread to
//     finish safely deletes the image

Node* find(Node* t, const string& s)  // find s in a binary tree of Nodes
{
    if (!t || t->name == s) return t;
    if ((auto p = find(t->left, s))) return p;
    if ((auto p = find(t->right, s))) return p;
    return nullptr;
}

int* f()
{
    int fx = 9;
    return &fx;  // BAD
}

void g(int* p)   // looks innocent enough
{
    int gx;
    cout << "*p == " << *p << '\n';
    *p = 999;
    cout << "gx == " << gx << '\n';
}

void h()
{
    int* p = f();
    int z = *p;  // read from abandoned stack frame (bad)
    g(p);        // pass pointer to abandoned stack frame to function (bad)
}

*p == 999
gx == 999

int& f()
{
    int x = 7;
    // ...
    return x;  // Bad: returns reference to object that is about to be destroyed
}

int* glob;       // global variables are bad in so many ways

template<class T>
void steal(T x)
{
    glob = x();  // BAD
}

void f()
{
    int i = 99;
    steal([&] { return &i; });
}

int main()
{
    f();
    cout << *glob << '\n';
}

class Car
{
    array<wheel, 4> w;
    // ...
public:
    wheel& get_wheel(int i) { Expects(i < w.size()); return w[i]; }
    // ...
};

void use()
{
    Car c;
    wheel& w0 = c.get_wheel(0); // w0 has the same lifetime as c
}

auto&& x = max(0, 1);   // OK, so far
foo(x);                 // Undefined behavior

template<class F>
auto&& wrapper(F f)
{
    log_call(typeid(f)); // or whatever instrumentation
    return f();          // BAD: returns a reference to a temporary
}

template<class F>
auto wrapper(F f)
{
    log_call(typeid(f)); // or whatever instrumentation
    return f();          // OK
}

    void main() { /* ... */ };  // bad, not C++

    int main()
    {
        std::cout << "This is the way to do it\n";
    }

class Foo
{
 public:
    ...
    Foo& operator=(const Foo& rhs)
    {
      // Copy members.
      ...
      return *this;
    }
};

S bad()
{
  S result;
  return std::move(result);
}

S good()
{
  S result;
  // Named RVO: move elision at best, move construction at worst
  return result;
}

const vector<int> fct();    // bad: that "const" is more trouble than it is worth

void g(vector<int>& vx)
{
    // ...
    fct() = vx;   // prevented by the "const"
    // ...
    vx = fct(); // expensive copy: move semantics suppressed by the "const"
    // ...
}

// writing a function that should only take an int or a string
// -- overloading is natural
void f(int);
void f(const string&);

// writing a function object that needs to capture local state and appear
// at statement or expression scope -- a lambda is natural
vector<work> v = lots_of_work();
for (int tasknum = 0; tasknum < max; ++tasknum) {
    pool.run([=, &v] {
        /*
        ...
        ... process (1/max)-th of v, the tasknum-th chunk
        ...
        */
    });
}
pool.join();

void print(const string& s, format f = {});

void print(const string& s);  // use default format
void print(const string& s, format f);

void print(const char&);
void print(int);
void print(zstring);

std::for_each(begin(sockets), end(sockets), [&message](auto& socket)
{
    socket.send(message);
});

void send_packets(buffers& bufs)
{
    stage encryptor([](buffer& b) { encrypt(b); });
    stage compressor([&](buffer& b) { compress(b); encryptor.process(b); });
    stage decorator([&](buffer& b) { decorate(b); compressor.process(b); });
    for (auto& b : bufs) { decorator.process(b); }
}  // automatically blocks waiting for pipeline to finish

int local = 42;

// Want a reference to local.
// Note that after program exits this scope,
// local no longer exists, therefore
// process() call will have undefined behavior!
thread_pool.queue_work([&] { process(local); });

int local = 42;
// Want a copy of local.
// Since a copy of local is made, it will
// always be available for the call.
thread_pool.queue_work([=] { process(local); });

class My_class {
    int x = 0;
    // ...

    void f()
    {
        int i = 0;
        // ...

        auto lambda = [=] { use(i, x); };   // BAD: "looks like" copy/value capture

        x = 42;
        lambda(); // calls use(0, 42);
        x = 43;
        lambda(); // calls use(0, 43);

        // ...

        auto lambda2 = [i, this] { use(i, x); }; // ok, most explicit and least confusing

        // ...
    }
};

int sum(...)
{
    // ...
    while (/*...*/)
        result += va_arg(list, int); // BAD, assumes it will be passed ints
    // ...
}

sum(3, 2); // ok
sum(3.14159, 2.71828); // BAD, undefined

template<class ...Args>
auto sum(Args... args) // GOOD, and much more flexible
{
    return (... + args); // note: C++17 "fold expression"
}

sum(3, 2); // ok: 5
sum(3.14159, 2.71828); // ok: ~5.85987

// Bad: Deep nesting
void foo() {
    ...
    if (x) {
        computeImportantThings(x);
    }
}

// Bad: Still a redundant else.
void foo() {
    ...
    if (!x) {
        return;
    }
    else {
        computeImportantThings(x);
    }
}

// Good: Early return, no redundant else
void foo() {
    ...
    if (!x)
        return;

    computeImportantThings(x);
}

// Bad: Unnecessary nesting of conditions
void foo() {
    ...
    if (x) {
        if (y) {
            computeImportantThings(x);
        }
    }
}

// Good: Merge conditions + return early
void foo() {
    ...
    if (!(x && y))
        return;

    computeImportantThings(x);
}

void draw(int x, int y, int x2, int y2);  // BAD: unnecessary implicit relationships
void draw(Point from, Point to);          // better

struct Pair {  // the members can vary independently
    string name;
    int volume;
};

class Date {
public:
    // validate that {yy, mm, dd} is a valid date and initialize
    Date(int yy, Month mm, char dd);
    // ...
private:
    int y;
    Month m;
    char d;    // day
};

class Date {
public:
    Date();
    // validate that {yy, mm, dd} is a valid date and initialize
    Date(int yy, Month mm, char dd);

    int day() const;
    Month month() const;
    // ...
private:
    // ... some representation ...
};

class Date {
    // ... relatively small interface ...
};

// helper functions:
Date next_weekday(Date);
bool operator==(Date, Date);

class Foobar {
public:
    void foo(long x) { /* manipulate private data */ }
    void foo(double x) { foo(std::lround(x)); }
    // ...
private:
    // ...
};

x.scale(0.5).rotate(45).set_color(Color::red);

namespace Chrono { // here we keep time-related services

    class Time { /* ... */ };
    class Date { /* ... */ };

    // helper functions:
    bool operator==(Date, Date);
    Date next_weekday(Date);
    // ...
}

struct Data { /*...*/ } data{ /*...*/ };

struct Data { /*...*/ };
Data data{ /*...*/ };

struct Date {
    int d, m;

    Date(int i, Month m);
    // ... lots of functions ...
private:
    int y;  // year
};

template<typename T, typename U>
struct pair {
    T a;
    U b;
    // ...
};

class Distance {
public:
    // ...
    double meters() const { return magnitude*unit; }
    void set_unit(double u)
    {
            // ... check that u is a factor of 10 ...
            // ... change magnitude appropriately ...
            unit = u;
    }
    // ...
private:
    double magnitude;
    double unit;    // 1 is meters, 1000 is kilometers, 0.001 is millimeters, etc.
};

class Foo {
public:
    int bar(int x) { check(x); return do_bar(x); }
    // ...
protected:
    int do_bar(int x); // do some operation on the data
    // ...
private:
    // ... data ...
};

class Dir : public Foo {
    //...
    int mem(int x, int y)
    {
        /* ... do something ... */
        return do_bar(x + y); // OK: derived class can bypass check
    }
};

void user(Foo& x)
{
    int r1 = x.bar(1);      // OK, will check
    int r2 = x.do_bar(2);   // error: would bypass check
    // ...
}

class Point1 {
    int x, y;
    // ... operations ...
    // ... no virtual functions ...
};

class Point2 {
    int x, y;
    // ... operations, some virtual ...
    virtual ~Point2();
};

void use()
{
    Point1 p11 {1, 2};   // make an object on the stack
    Point1 p12 {p11};    // a copy

    auto p21 = make_unique<Point2>(1, 2);   // make an object on the free store
    auto p22 = p21->clone();                // make a copy
    // ...
}

struct Bundle {
    string name;
    vector<Record> vr;
};

bool operator==(const Bundle& a, const Bundle& b)
{
    return a.name == b.name && a.vr == b.vr;
}

Bundle b1 { "my bundle", {r1, r2, r3}};
Bundle b2 = b1;
if (!(b1 == b2)) error("impossible!");
b2.name = "the other bundle";
if (b1 == b2) error("No!");

class bad {
    const int i;    // bad
    string& s;      // bad
    // ...
};

struct Named_map {
public:
    explicit Named_map(const string& n) : name(n) {}
    // no copy/move constructors
    // no copy/move assignment operators
    // no destructor
private:
    string name;
    map<int, int> rep;
};

Named_map nm("map"); // construct
Named_map nm2 {nm};  // copy construct

struct M2 {   // bad: incomplete set of copy/move/destructor operations
public:
    // ...
    // ... no copy or move operations ...
    ~M2() { delete[] rep; }
private:
    pair<int, int>* rep;  // zero-terminated set of pairs
};

void use()
{
    M2 x;
    M2 y;
    // ...
    x = y;   // the default assignment
    // ...
}

class AbstractBase {
public:
    virtual void foo() = 0;  // at least one abstract method to make the class abstract
    virtual ~AbstractBase() = default;
    // ...
};

class CloneableBase {
public:
    virtual unique_ptr<CloneableBase> clone() const;
    virtual ~CloneableBase() = default;
    CloneableBase() = default;
    CloneableBase(const CloneableBase&) = delete;
    CloneableBase& operator=(const CloneableBase&) = delete;
    CloneableBase(CloneableBase&&) = delete;
    CloneableBase& operator=(CloneableBase&&) = delete;
    // ... other constructors and functions ...
};

class X {
public:
    // ...
    virtual ~X() = default;               // destructor (virtual if X is meant to be a base class)
    X(const X&) = default;                // copy constructor
    X& operator=(const X&) = default;     // copy assignment
    X(X&&) noexcept = default;            // move constructor
    X& operator=(X&&) noexcept = default; // move assignment
};

class Silly {   // BAD: Inconsistent copy operations
    class Impl {
        // ...
    };
    shared_ptr<Impl> p;
public:
    Silly(const Silly& a) : p(make_shared<Impl>()) { *p = *a.p; }   // deep copy
    Silly& operator=(const Silly& a) { p = a.p; return *this; }   // shallow copy
    // ...
};

template<typename A>
struct final_action {   // slightly simplified
    A act;
    final_action(A a) : act{a} {}
    ~final_action() { act(); }
};

template<typename A>
final_action<A> finally(A act)   // deduce action type
{
    return final_action<A>{act};
}

void test()
{
    auto act = finally([] { cout << "Exit test\n"; });  // establish exit action
    // ...
    if (something) return;   // act done here
    // ...
} // act done here

class Foo {   // bad; use the default destructor
public:
    // ...
    ~Foo() { s = ""; i = 0; vi.clear(); }  // clean up
private:
    string s;
    int i;
    vector<int> vi;
};

class X {
    ifstream f;   // might own a file
    // ... no default operations defined or =deleted ...
};

class X2 {     // bad
    FILE* f;   // might own a file
    // ... no default operations defined or =deleted ...
};

Preprocessor pp { /* ... */ };
Parser p { pp, /* ... */ };
Type_checker tc { p, /* ... */ };

class legacy_class
{
    foo* m_owning;   // Bad: change to unique_ptr<T> or owner<T*>
    bar* m_observer; // OK: keep
}

template<typename T>
class Smart_ptr {
    T* p;   // BAD: vague about ownership of *p
    // ...
public:
    // ... no user-defined default operations ...
};

void use(Smart_ptr<int> p1)
{
    // error: p2.p leaked (if not nullptr and not owned by some other code)
    auto p2 = p1;
}

template<typename T>
class Smart_ptr2 {
    T* p;   // BAD: vague about ownership of *p
    // ...
public:
    // ... no user-defined copy operations ...
    ~Smart_ptr2() { delete p; }  // p is an owner!
};

void use(Smart_ptr2<int> p1)
{
    auto p2 = p1;   // error: double deletion
}

template<typename T>
class Smart_ptr3 {
    owner<T*> p;   // OK: explicit about ownership of *p
    // ...
public:
    // ...
    // ... copy and move operations ...
    ~Smart_ptr3() { delete p; }
};

void use(Smart_ptr3<int> p1)
{
    auto p2 = p1;   // OK: no double deletion
}

struct Base {  // BAD: implicitly has a public non-virtual destructor
    virtual void f();
};

struct D : Base {
    string s {"a resource needing cleanup"};
    ~D() { /* ... do some cleanup ... */ }
    // ...
};

void use()
{
    unique_ptr<Base> p = make_unique<D>();
    // ...
} // p's destruction calls ~Base(), not ~D(), which leaks D::s and possibly more

class X {
    ~X();   // private destructor
    // ...
};

void use()
{
    X a;                        // error: cannot destroy
    auto p = make_unique<X>();  // error: cannot destroy
}

class X {
public:
    ~X() noexcept;
    // ...
};

X::~X() noexcept
{
    // ...
    if (cannot_release_a_resource) terminate();
    // ...
}

struct X {
    Details x;  // happens to have a throwing destructor
    // ...
    ~X() { }    // implicitly noexcept(false); aka can throw
};

class Date {  // a Date represents a valid date
              // in the January 1, 1900 to December 31, 2100 range
    Date(int dd, int mm, int yy)
        :d{dd}, m{mm}, y{yy}
    {
        if (!is_valid(d, m, y)) throw Bad_date{};  // enforce invariant
    }
    // ...
private:
    int d, m, y;
};

struct Rec {
    string s;
    int i {0};
    Rec(const string& ss) : s{ss} {}
    Rec(int ii) :i{ii} {}
};

Rec r1 {7};
Rec r2 {"Foo bar"};

struct Rec2{
    string s;
    int i;
    Rec2(const string& ss, int ii = 0) :s{ss}, i{ii} {}   // redundant
};

Rec2 r1 {"Foo", 7};
Rec2 r2 {"Bar"};

class X1 {
    FILE* f;   // call init() before any other function
    // ...
public:
    X1() {}
    void init();   // initialize f
    void read();   // read from f
    // ...
};

void f()
{
    X1 file;
    file.read();   // crash or bad read!
    // ...
    file.init();   // too late
    // ...
}

class X2 {
    FILE* f;
    // ...
public:
    X2(const string& name)
        :f{fopen(name.c_str(), "r")}
    {
        if (!f) throw runtime_error{"could not open" + name};
        // ...
    }

    void read();      // read from f
    // ...
};

void f()
{
    X2 file {"Zeno"}; // throws if file isn't open
    file.read();      // fine
    // ...
}

class X3 {     // bad: the constructor leaves a non-valid object behind
    FILE* f;   // call is_valid() before any other function
    bool valid;
    // ...
public:
    X3(const string& name)
        :f{fopen(name.c_str(), "r")}, valid{false}
    {
        if (f) valid = true;
        // ...
    }

    bool is_valid() { return valid; }
    void read();   // read from f
    // ...
};

void f()
{
    X3 file {"Heraclides"};
    file.read();   // crash or bad read!
    // ...
    if (file.is_valid()) {
        file.read();
        // ...
    }
    else {
        // ... handle error ...
    }
    // ...
}

class Date { // BAD: no default constructor
public:
    Date(int dd, int mm, int yyyy);
    // ...
};

vector<Date> vd1(1000);   // default Date needed here
vector<Date> vd2(1000, Date{7, Month::October, 1885});   // alternative

class Date {
public:
    Date(int dd, int mm, int yyyy);
    Date() = default; // [See also](#Rc-default)
    // ...
private:
    int dd {1};
    int mm {1};
    int yyyy {1970};
    // ...
};

vector<Date> vd1(1000);

struct X {
    string s;
    vector<int> v;
};

X x; // means X{ { }, { } }; that is the empty string and the empty vector

struct X {
    string s;
    int i;
};

void f()
{
    X x;    // x.s is initialized to the empty string; x.i is uninitialized

    cout << x.s << ' ' << x.i << '\n';
    ++x.i;
}

struct X {
    string s;
    int i {};   // default initialize (to 0)
};

// Shape is an abstract base class, not a copyable type.
// It might or might not need a default constructor.
struct Shape {
    virtual void draw() = 0;
    virtual void rotate(int) = 0;
    // =delete copy/move functions
    // ...
};

// std::lock_guard is not a copyable type.
// It does not have a default constructor.
lock_guard g {mx};  // guard the mutex mx
lock_guard g2;      // error: guarding nothing

// std::ofstream is not a copyable type.
// It does happen to have a default constructor
// that goes along with a special "not open" state.
ofstream out {"Foobar"};
// ...
out << log(time, transaction);

template<typename T>
// elem points to space-elem element allocated using new
class Vector0 {
public:
    Vector0() :Vector0{0} {}
    Vector0(int n) :elem{new T[n]}, space{elem + n}, last{elem} {}
    // ...
private:
    own<T*> elem;
    T* space;
    T* last;
};

template<typename T>
// elem is nullptr or elem points to space-elem element allocated using new
class Vector1 {
public:
    // sets the representation to {nullptr, nullptr, nullptr}; doesn't throw
    Vector1() noexcept {}
    Vector1(int n) :elem{new T[n]}, space{elem + n}, last{elem} {}
    // ...
private:
    own<T*> elem {};
    T* space {};
    T* last {};
};

class X1 { // BAD: doesn't use member initializers
    string s;
    int i;
public:
    X1() :s{"default"}, i{1} { }
    // ...
};

class X2 {
    string s {"default"};
    int i {1};
public:
    // use compiler-generated default constructor
    // ...
};

class String {
public:
    String(int);   // BAD
    // ...
};

String s = 10;   // surprise: string of size 10

class Complex {
public:
    Complex(double d);   // OK: we want a conversion from d to {d, 0}
    // ...
};

Complex z = 10.7;   // unsurprising conversion

class Foo {
    int m1;
    int m2;
public:
    Foo(int x) :m2{x}, m1{++x} { }   // BAD: misleading initializer order
    // ...
};

Foo x(1); // surprise: x.m1 == x.m2 == 2

class X {   // BAD
    int i;
    string s;
    int j;
public:
    X() :i{666}, s{"qqq"} { }   // j is uninitialized
    X(int ii) :i{ii} {}         // s is "" and j is uninitialized
    // ...
};

class X2 {
    int i {666};
    string s {"qqq"};
    int j {0};
public:
    X2() = default;        // all members are initialized to their defaults
    X2(int ii) :i{ii} {}   // s and j initialized to their defaults
    // ...
};

class X3 {   // BAD: inexplicit, argument passing overhead
    int i;
    string s;
    int j;
public:
    X3(int ii = 666, const string& ss = "qqq", int jj = 0)
        :i{ii}, s{ss}, j{jj} { }   // all members are initialized to their defaults
    // ...
};

class A {   // Good
    string s1;
public:
    A(czstring p) : s1{p} { }    // GOOD: directly construct (and the C-string is explicitly named)
    // ...
};

class B {   // BAD
    string s1;
public:
    B(const char* p) { s1 = p; }   // BAD: default constructor followed by assignment
    // ...
};

class C {   // UGLY, aka very bad
    int* p;
public:
    C() { cout << *p; p = new int{10}; }   // accidental use before initialized
    // ...
};

class D {   // Good
    string s1;
public:
    D(string_view v) : s1{v} { }    // GOOD: directly construct
    // ...
};

class B {
public:
    B()
    {
        /* ... */
        f(); // BAD: C.82: Don't call virtual functions in constructors and destructors
        /* ... */
    }

    virtual void f() = 0;
};

class B {
protected:
    class Token {};

public:
    explicit B(Token) { /* ... */ }  // create an imperfectly initialized object
    virtual void f() = 0;

    template<class T>
    static shared_ptr<T> create()    // interface for creating shared objects
    {
        auto p = make_shared<T>(typename T::Token{});
        p->post_initialize();
        return p;
    }

protected:
    virtual void post_initialize()   // called right after construction
        { /* ... */ f(); /* ... */ } // GOOD: virtual dispatch is safe
};

class D : public B {                 // some derived class
protected:
    class Token {};

public:
    explicit D(Token) : B{ B::Token{} } {}
    void f() override { /* ...  */ };

protected:
    template<class T>
    friend shared_ptr<T> B::create();
};

shared_ptr<D> p = D::create<D>();  // creating a D object

class Date {   // BAD: repetitive
    int d;
    Month m;
    int y;
public:
    Date(int dd, Month mm, year yy)
        :d{dd}, m{mm}, y{yy}
        { if (!valid(d, m, y)) throw Bad_date{}; }

    Date(int dd, Month mm)
        :d{dd}, m{mm} y{current_year()}
        { if (!valid(d, m, y)) throw Bad_date{}; }
    // ...
};

class Date2 {
    int d;
    Month m;
    int y;
public:
    Date2(int dd, Month mm, year yy)
        :d{dd}, m{mm}, y{yy}
        { if (!valid(d, m, y)) throw Bad_date{}; }

    Date2(int dd, Month mm)
        :Date2{dd, mm, current_year()} {}
    // ...
};

class Rec {
    // ... data and lots of nice constructors ...
};

class Oper : public Rec {
    using Rec::Rec;
    // ... no data members ...
    // ... lots of nice utility functions ...
};

struct Rec2 : public Rec {
    int x;
    using Rec::Rec;
};

Rec2 r {"foo", 7};
int val = r.x;   // uninitialized

class Foo {
public:
    Foo& operator=(const Foo& x)
    {
        // GOOD: no need to check for self-assignment (other than performance)
        auto tmp = x;
        swap(tmp); // see C.83
        return *this;
    }
    // ...
};

Foo a;
Foo b;
Foo f();

a = b;    // assign lvalue: copy
a = f();  // assign rvalue: potentially move

template<typename T>
class Vector {
public:
    Vector& operator=(const Vector&);
    // ...
private:
    T* elem;
    int sz;
};

Vector& Vector::operator=(const Vector& a)
{
    if (a.sz > sz) {
        // ... use the swap technique, it can't be bettered ...
        return *this;
    }
    // ... copy sz elements from *a.elem to elem ...
    if (a.sz < sz) {
        // ... destroy the surplus elements in *this and adjust size ...
    }
    return *this;
}

class X {   // OK: value semantics
public:
    X();
    X(const X&);     // copy X
    void modify();   // change the value of X
    // ...
    ~X() { delete[] p; }
private:
    T* p;
    int sz;
};

bool operator==(const X& a, const X& b)
{
    return a.sz == b.sz && equal(a.p, a.p + a.sz, b.p, b.p + b.sz);
}

X::X(const X& a)
    :p{new T[a.sz]}, sz{a.sz}
{
    copy(a.p, a.p + sz, p);
}

X x;
X y = x;
if (x != y) throw Bad{};
x.modify();
if (x == y) throw Bad{};   // assume value semantics

class X2 {  // OK: pointer semantics
public:
    X2();
    X2(const X2&) = default; // shallow copy
    ~X2() = default;
    void modify();          // change the pointed-to value
    // ...
private:
    T* p;
    int sz;
};

bool operator==(const X2& a, const X2& b)
{
    return a.sz == b.sz && a.p == b.p;
}

X2 x;
X2 y = x;
if (x != y) throw Bad{};
x.modify();
if (x != y) throw Bad{};  // assume pointer semantics

std::vector<int> v = {3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9};
v = v;
// the value of v is still {3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9}

struct Bar {
    vector<pair<int, int>> v;
    map<string, int> m;
    string s;
};

Bar b;
// ...
b = b;   // correct and efficient

class Foo {
    string s;
    int i;
public:
    Foo& operator=(const Foo& a);
    // ...
};

Foo& Foo::operator=(const Foo& a)   // OK, but there is a cost
{
    if (this == &a) return *this;
    s = a.s;
    i = a.i;
    return *this;
}

Foo& Foo::operator=(const Foo& a)   // simpler, and probably much better
{
    s = a.s;
    i = a.i;
    return *this;
}

class X {   // OK: value semantics
public:
    X();
    X(X&& a) noexcept;  // move X
    X& operator=(X&& a) noexcept; // move-assign X
    void modify();     // change the value of X
    // ...
    ~X() { delete[] p; }
private:
    T* p;
    int sz;
};

X::X(X&& a) noexcept
    :p{a.p}, sz{a.sz}  // steal representation
{
    a.p = nullptr;     // set to "empty"
    a.sz = 0;
}

void use()
{
    X x{};
    // ...
    X y = std::move(x);
    x = X{};   // OK
} // OK: x can be destroyed

class Foo {
    string s;
    int i;
public:
    Foo& operator=(Foo&& a) noexcept;
    // ...
};

Foo& Foo::operator=(Foo&& a) noexcept  // OK, but there is a cost
{
    if (this == &a) return *this;  // this line is redundant
    s = std::move(a.s);
    i = a.i;
    return *this;
}

// move from other.ptr to this->ptr
T* temp = other.ptr;
other.ptr = nullptr;
delete ptr; // in self-move, this->ptr is also null; delete is a no-op
ptr = temp; // in self-move, the original ptr is restored

template<typename T>
class Vector {
public:
    Vector(Vector&& a) noexcept :elem{a.elem}, sz{a.sz} { a.elem = nullptr; a.sz = 0; }
    Vector& operator=(Vector&& a) noexcept {
        if (&a != this) {
            delete elem;
            elem = a.elem; a.elem = nullptr;
            sz   = a.sz;   a.sz   = 0;
        }
        return *this;
    }
    // ...
private:
    T* elem;
    int sz;
};

template<typename T>
class Vector2 {
public:
    Vector2(Vector2&& a) noexcept { *this = a; }             // just use the copy
    Vector2& operator=(Vector2&& a) noexcept { *this = a; }  // just use the copy
    // ...
private:
    T* elem;
    int sz;
};

class B { // BAD: polymorphic base class doesn't suppress copying
public:
    virtual char m() { return 'B'; }
    // ... nothing about copy operations, so uses default ...
};

class D : public B {
public:
    char m() override { return 'D'; }
    // ...
};

void f(B& b)
{
    auto b2 = b; // oops, slices the object; b2.m() will return 'B'
}

D d;
f(d);

class B { // GOOD: polymorphic class suppresses copying
public:
    B() = default;
    B(const B&) = delete;
    B& operator=(const B&) = delete;
    virtual char m() { return 'B'; }
    // ...
};

class D : public B {
public:
    char m() override { return 'D'; }
    // ...
};

void f(B& b)
{
    auto b2 = b; // ok, compiler will detect inadvertent copying, and protest
}

D d;
f(d);

class Tracer {
    string message;
public:
    Tracer(const string& m) : message{m} { cerr << "entering " << message << '\n'; }
    ~Tracer() { cerr << "exiting " << message << '\n'; }

    Tracer(const Tracer&) = default;
    Tracer& operator=(const Tracer&) = default;
    Tracer(Tracer&&) noexcept = default;
    Tracer& operator=(Tracer&&) noexcept = default;
};

class Tracer2 {
    string message;
public:
    Tracer2(const string& m) : message{m} { cerr << "entering " << message << '\n'; }
    ~Tracer2() { cerr << "exiting " << message << '\n'; }

    Tracer2(const Tracer2& a) : message{a.message} {}
    Tracer2& operator=(const Tracer2& a) { message = a.message; return *this; }
    Tracer2(Tracer2&& a) noexcept :message{a.message} {}
    Tracer2& operator=(Tracer2&& a) noexcept { message = a.message; return *this; }
};

class Immortal {
public:
    ~Immortal() = delete;   // do not allow destruction
    // ...
};

void use()
{
    Immortal ugh;   // error: ugh cannot be destroyed
    Immortal* p = new Immortal{};
    delete p;       // error: cannot destroy *p
}

template<class T, class D = default_delete<T>> class unique_ptr {
public:
    // ...
    constexpr unique_ptr() noexcept;
    explicit unique_ptr(pointer p) noexcept;
    // ...
    unique_ptr(unique_ptr&& u) noexcept;   // move constructor
    // ...
    unique_ptr(const unique_ptr&) = delete; // disable copy from lvalue
    // ...
};

unique_ptr<int> make();   // make "something" and return it by moving

void f()
{
    unique_ptr<int> pi {};
    auto pi2 {pi};      // error: no move constructor from lvalue
    auto pi3 {make()};  // OK, move: the result of make() is an rvalue
}

class Base {
public:
    virtual void f() = 0;   // not implemented
    virtual void g();       // implemented with Base version
    virtual void h();       // implemented with Base version
    virtual ~Base();        // implemented with Base version
};

class Derived : public Base {
public:
    void g() override;   // provide Derived implementation
    void h() final;      // provide Derived implementation

    Derived()
    {
        // BAD: attempt to call an unimplemented virtual function
        f();

        // BAD: will call Derived::g, not dispatch further virtually
        g();

        // GOOD: explicitly state intent to call only the visible version
        Derived::g();

        // ok, no qualification needed, h is final
        h();
    }
};

class Foo {
public:
    void swap(Foo& rhs) noexcept
    {
        m1.swap(rhs.m1);
        std::swap(m2, rhs.m2);
    }
private:
    Bar m1;
    int m2;
};

void swap(Foo& a, Foo& b)
{
    a.swap(b);
}

void swap(My_vector& x, My_vector& y)
{
    auto tmp = x;   // copy elements
    x = y;
    y = tmp;
}

struct X {
    string name;
    int number;
};

bool operator==(const X& a, const X& b) noexcept {
    return a.name == b.name && a.number == b.number;
}

class B {
    string name;
    int number;
    bool operator==(const B& a) const {
        return name == a.name && number == a.number;
    }
    // ...
};

class B {
    string name;
    int number;
public:
    virtual bool operator==(const B& a) const
    {
         return name == a.name && number == a.number;
    }
    // ...
};

class D : public B {
    char character;
public:
    virtual bool operator==(const D& a) const
    {
        return B::operator==(a) && character == a.character;
    }
    // ...
};

B b = ...
D d = ...
b == d;    // compares name and number, ignores d's character
d == b;    // compares name and number, ignores d's character
D d2;
d == d2;   // compares name, number, and character
B& b2 = d2;
b2 == d;   // compares name and number, ignores d2's and d's character

template<>
struct hash<My_type> {  // thoroughly bad hash specialization
    using result_type = size_t;
    using argument_type = My_type;

    size_t operator()(const My_type & x) const
    {
        size_t xs = x.s.size();
        if (xs < 4) throw Bad_My_type{};    // "Nobody expects the Spanish inquisition!"
        return hash<size_t>()(x.s.size()) ^ trim(x.s);
    }
};

int main()
{
    unordered_map<My_type, int> m;
    My_type mt{ "asdfg" };
    m[mt] = 7;
    cout << m[My_type{ "asdfg" }] << '\n';
}

struct base {
    virtual void update() = 0;
    std::shared_ptr<int> sp;
};

struct derived : public base {
    void update() override {}
};

void init(derived& a)
{
    memset(&a, 0, sizeof(derived));
}

void copy(derived& a, derived& b)
{
    memcpy(&a, &b, sizeof(derived));
}

// simplified (e.g., no allocators):

template<typename T>
class Sorted_vector {
    using value_type = T;
    // ... iterator types ...

    Sorted_vector() = default;
    Sorted_vector(initializer_list<T>);    // initializer-list constructor: sort and store
    Sorted_vector(const Sorted_vector&) = default;
    Sorted_vector(Sorted_vector&&) noexcept = default;
    Sorted_vector& operator=(const Sorted_vector&) = default;     // copy assignment
    Sorted_vector& operator=(Sorted_vector&&) noexcept = default; // move assignment
    ~Sorted_vector() = default;

    Sorted_vector(const std::vector<T>& v);   // store and sort
    Sorted_vector(std::vector<T>&& v);        // sort and "steal representation"

    const T& operator[](int i) const { return rep[i]; }
    // no non-const direct access to preserve order

    void push_back(const T&);   // insert in the right place (not necessarily at back)
    void push_back(T&&);        // insert in the right place (not necessarily at back)

    // ... cbegin(), cend() ...
private:
    std::vector<T> rep;  // use a std::vector to hold elements
};

template<typename T> bool operator==(const Sorted_vector<T>&, const Sorted_vector<T>&);
template<typename T> bool operator!=(const Sorted_vector<T>&, const Sorted_vector<T>&);
// ...

void f(const Sorted_vector<string>& v)
{
    Sorted_vector<string> v2 {v};
    if (v != v2)
        cout << "Behavior against reason and logic.\n";
    // ...
}

Sorted_vector<int> read_sorted(istream& is)
{
    vector<int> v;
    cin >> v;   // assume we have a read operation for vectors
    Sorted_vector<int> sv = v;  // sorts
    return sv;
}

Sorted_vector<int> sv {1, 3, -1, 7, 0, 0}; // Sorted_vector sorts elements as needed

vector<Sorted_sequence<string>> vs(100);    // 100 Sorted_sequences each with the value ""

???

class DrawableUIElement {
public:
    virtual void render() const = 0;
    // ...
};

class AbstractButton : public DrawableUIElement {
public:
    virtual void onClick() = 0;
    // ...
};

class PushButton : public AbstractButton {
    void render() const override;
    void onClick() override;
    // ...
};

class Checkbox : public AbstractButton {
// ...
};

template<typename T>
class Container {
public:
    // list operations:
    virtual T& get() = 0;
    virtual void put(T&) = 0;
    virtual void insert(Position) = 0;
    // ...
    // vector operations:
    virtual T& operator[](int) = 0;
    virtual void sort() = 0;
    // ...
    // tree operations:
    virtual void balance() = 0;
    // ...
};

class My_interface {
public:
    // ... only pure virtual functions here ...
    virtual ~My_interface() {}   // or =default
};

class Goof {
public:
    // ... only pure virtual functions here ...
    // no virtual destructor
};

class Derived : public Goof {
    string s;
    // ...
};

void use()
{
    unique_ptr<Goof> p {new Derived{"here we go"}};
    f(p.get()); // use Derived through the Goof interface
    g(p.get()); // use Derived through the Goof interface
} // leak

struct Device {
    virtual ~Device() = default;
    virtual void write(span<const char> outbuf) = 0;
    virtual void read(span<char> inbuf) = 0;
};

class D1 : public Device {
    // ... data ...

    void write(span<const char> outbuf) override;
    void read(span<char> inbuf) override;
};

class D2 : public Device {
    // ... different data ...

    void write(span<const char> outbuf) override;
    void read(span<char> inbuf) override;
};

???

class Shape {
public:
    // no user-written constructor needed in abstract base class
    virtual Point center() const = 0;    // pure virtual
    virtual void move(Point to) = 0;
    // ... more pure virtual functions ...
    virtual ~Shape() {}                 // destructor
};

class Circle : public Shape {
public:
    Circle(Point p, int rad);           // constructor in derived class
    Point center() const override { return x; }
};

struct B {
    virtual int f() = 0;
    // ... no user-written destructor, defaults to public non-virtual ...
};

// bad: derived from a class without a virtual destructor
struct D : B {
    string s {"default"};
    // ...
};

void use()
{
    unique_ptr<B> p = make_unique<D>();
    // ...
} // undefined behavior, might call B::~B only and leak the string

struct B {
    void f1(int);
    virtual void f2(int) const;
    virtual void f3(int);
    // ...
};

struct D : B {
    void f1(int);        // bad (hope for a warning): D::f1() hides B::f1()
    void f2(int) const;  // bad (but conventional and valid): no explicit override
    void f3(double);     // bad (hope for a warning): D::f3() hides B::f3()
    // ...
};

struct Better : B {
    void f1(int) override;        // error (caught): Better::f1() hides B::f1()
    void f2(int) const override;
    void f3(double) override;     // error (caught): Better::f3() hides B::f3()
    // ...
};

class Shape {   // BAD, mixed interface and implementation
public:
    Shape();
    Shape(Point ce = {0, 0}, Color co = none): cent{ce}, col {co} { /* ... */}

    Point center() const { return cent; }
    Color color() const { return col; }

    virtual void rotate(int) = 0;
    virtual void move(Point p) { cent = p; redraw(); }

    virtual void redraw();

    // ...
private:
    Point cent;
    Color col;
};

class Circle : public Shape {
public:
    Circle(Point c, int r) : Shape{c}, rad{r} { /* ... */ }

    // ...
private:
    int rad;
};

class Triangle : public Shape {
public:
    Triangle(Point p1, Point p2, Point p3); // calculate center
    // ...
};

class Shape {  // pure interface
public:
    virtual Point center() const = 0;
    virtual Color color() const = 0;

    virtual void rotate(int) = 0;
    virtual void move(Point p) = 0;

    virtual void redraw() = 0;

    // ...
};

class Circle : public Shape {
public:
    Circle(Point c, int r, Color c) : cent{c}, rad{r}, col{c} { /* ... */ }

    Point center() const override { return cent; }
    Color color() const override { return col; }

    // ...
private:
    Point cent;
    int rad;
    Color col;
};

class Shape {   // pure interface
public:
    virtual Point center() const = 0;
    virtual Color color() const = 0;

    virtual void rotate(int) = 0;
    virtual void move(Point p) = 0;

    virtual void redraw() = 0;

    // ...
};

class Circle : public virtual Shape {   // pure interface
public:
    virtual int radius() = 0;
    // ...
};

class Impl::Shape : public virtual ::Shape { // implementation
public:
    // constructors, destructor
    // ...
    Point center() const override { /* ... */ }
    Color color() const override { /* ... */ }

    void rotate(int) override { /* ... */ }
    void move(Point p) override { /* ... */ }

    void redraw() override { /* ... */ }

    // ...
};

class Impl::Circle : public virtual ::Circle, public Impl::Shape {   // implementation
public:
    // constructors, destructor

    int radius() override { /* ... */ }
    // ...
};

class Smiley : public virtual Circle { // pure interface
public:
    // ...
};

class Impl::Smiley : public virtual ::Smiley, public Impl::Circle {   // implementation
public:
    // constructors, destructor
    // ...
}

Smiley     ->         Circle     ->  Shape
  ^                     ^               ^
  |                     |               |
Impl::Smiley -> Impl::Circle -> Impl::Shape

void work_with_shape(Shape&);

int user()
{
    Impl::Smiley my_smiley{ /* args */ };   // create concrete shape
    // ...
    my_smiley.some_member();        // use implementation class directly
    // ...
    work_with_shape(my_smiley);     // use implementation through abstract interface
    // ...
}

class B {
public:
    B() = default;
    virtual ~B() = default;
    virtual gsl::owner<B*> clone() const = 0;
protected:
     B(const B&) = default;
     B& operator=(const B&) = default;
     B(B&&) noexcept = default;
     B& operator=(B&&) noexcept = default;
    // ...
};

class D : public B {
public:
    gsl::owner<D*> clone() const override
    {
        return new D{*this};
    };
};

class Point {   // Bad: verbose
    int x;
    int y;
public:
    Point(int xx, int yy) : x{xx}, y{yy} { }
    int get_x() const { return x; }
    void set_x(int xx) { x = xx; }
    int get_y() const { return y; }
    void set_y(int yy) { y = yy; }
    // no behavioral member functions
};

struct Point {
    int x {0};
    int y {0};
};

template<class T>
class Vector {
public:
    // ...
    virtual int size() const { return sz; }   // bad: what good could a derived class do?
private:
    T* elem;   // the elements
    int sz;    // number of elements
};

class Shape {
public:
    // ... interface functions ...
protected:
    // data for use in derived classes:
    Color fill_color;
    Color edge_color;
    Style st;
};

class iostream : public istream, public ostream {   // very simplified
    // ...
};

class iostream : public istream, public ostream {   // very simplified
    // ...
};

struct Interface {
    virtual void f();
    virtual int g();
    // ... no data here ...
};

class Utility {  // with data
    void utility1();
    virtual void utility2();    // customization point
public:
    int x;
    int y;
};

class Derive1 : public Interface, virtual protected Utility {
    // override Interface functions
    // Maybe override Utility virtual functions
    // ...
};

class Derive2 : public Interface, virtual protected Utility {
    // override Interface functions
    // Maybe override Utility virtual functions
    // ...
};

#include <iostream>
class B {
public:
    virtual int f(int i) { std::cout << "f(int): "; return i; }
    virtual double f(double d) { std::cout << "f(double): "; return d; }
    virtual ~B() = default;
};
class D: public B {
public:
    int f(int i) override { std::cout << "f(int): "; return i + 1; }
};
int main()
{
    D d;
    std::cout << d.f(2) << '\n';   // prints "f(int): 3"
    std::cout << d.f(2.3) << '\n'; // prints "f(int): 3"
}

class D: public B {
public:
    int f(int i) override { std::cout << "f(int): "; return i + 1; }
    using B::f; // exposes f(double)
};

template<class... Ts>
struct Overloader : Ts... {
    using Ts::operator()...; // exposes operator() from every base
};

class Widget { /* ... */ };

// nobody will ever want to improve My_widget (or so you thought)
class My_widget final : public Widget { /* ... */ };

class My_improved_widget : public My_widget { /* ... */ };  // error: can't do that

class Base {
public:
    virtual int multiply(int value, int factor = 2) = 0;
    virtual ~Base() = default;
};

class Derived : public Base {
public:
    int multiply(int value, int factor = 10) override;
};

Derived d;
Base& b = d;

b.multiply(10);  // these two calls will call the same function but
d.multiply(10);  // with different arguments and so different results

struct B { int a; virtual int f(); virtual ~B() = default };
struct D : B { int b; int f() override; };

void use(B b)
{
    D d;
    B b2 = d;   // slice
    B b3 = b;
}

void use2()
{
    D d;
    use(d);   // slice
}

void use3()
{
    D d;
    d.f();   // OK
}

struct B {   // an interface
    virtual void f();
    virtual void g();
    virtual ~B();
};

struct D : B {   // a wider interface
    void f() override;
    virtual void h();
};

void user(B* pb)
{
    if (D* pd = dynamic_cast<D*>(pb)) {
        // ... use D's interface ...
    }
    else {
        // ... make do with B's interface ...
    }
}

void user2(B* pb)   // bad
{
    D* pd = static_cast<D*>(pb);    // I know that pb really points to a D; trust me
    // ... use D's interface ...
}

void user3(B* pb)    // unsafe
{
    if (some_condition) {
        D* pd = static_cast<D*>(pb);   // I know that pb really points to a D; trust me
        // ... use D's interface ...
    }
    else {
        // ... make do with B's interface ...
    }
}

void f()
{
    B b;
    user(&b);   // OK
    user2(&b);  // bad error
    user3(&b);  // OK *if* the programmer got the some_condition check right
}

struct B {
    const char* name {"B"};
    // if pb1->id() == pb2->id() *pb1 is the same type as *pb2
    virtual const char* id() const { return name; }
    // ...
};

struct D : B {
    const char* name {"D"};
    const char* id() const override { return name; }
    // ...
};

void use()
{
    B* pb1 = new B;
    B* pb2 = new D;

    cout << pb1->id(); // "B"
    cout << pb2->id(); // "D"


    if (pb2->id() == "D") {         // looks innocent
        D* pd = static_cast<D*>(pb2);
        // ...
    }
    // ...
}

template<typename B>
class Dx : B {
    // ...
};

std::string f(Base& b)
{
    return dynamic_cast<Derived&>(b).to_string();
}

void add(Shape* const item)
{
  // Ownership is always taken
  owned_shapes.emplace_back(item);

  // Check the Geometric_attributes and add the shape to none/one/some/all of the views

  if (auto even = dynamic_cast<Even_sided*>(item))
  {
    view_of_evens.emplace_back(even);
  }

  if (auto trisym = dynamic_cast<Trilaterally_symmetrical*>(item))
  {
    view_of_trisyms.emplace_back(trisym);
  }
}

void use(int i)
{
    auto p = new int {7};           // bad: initialize local pointers with new
    auto q = make_unique<int>(9);   // ok: guarantee the release of the memory-allocated for 9
    if (0 < i) return;              // maybe return and leak
    delete p;                       // too late
}

struct B { int x; };
struct D : B { int y; };

void use(B*);

D a[] = { {1, 2}, {3, 4}, {5, 6} };
B* p = a;     // bad: a decays to &a[0] which is converted to a B*
p[1].x = 7;   // overwrite a[0].y

use(a);       // bad: a decays to &a[0] which is converted to a B*

???

class X {
public:
    // ...
    X& operator=(const X&); // member function defining assignment
    friend bool operator==(const X&, const X&); // == needs access to representation
                                                // after a = b we have a == b
    // ...
};

X operator+(X a, X b) { return a.v - b.v; }   // bad: makes + subtract

bool operator==(Point a, Point b) { return a.x == b.x && a.y == b.y; }

void print(int a);
void print(int a, int base);
void print(const string&);

void print_int(int a);
void print_based(int a, int base);
void print_string(const string&);

void open_gate(Gate& g);   // remove obstacle from garage exit lane
void fopen(const char* name, const char* mode);   // open file

void open(Gate& g);   // remove obstacle from garage exit lane
void open(const char* name, const char* mode ="r");   // open file

struct S1 {
    string s;
    // ...
    operator char*() { return s.data(); }  // BAD, likely to cause surprises
};

struct S2 {
    string s;
    // ...
    explicit operator char*() { return s.data(); }
};

void f(S1 s1, S2 s2)
{
    char* x1 = s1;     // OK, but can cause surprises in many contexts
    char* x2 = s2;     // error (and that's usually a good thing)
    char* x3 = static_cast<char*>(s2); // we can be explicit (on your head be it)
}

S1 ff();

char* g()
{
    return ff();
}

namespace N {
    My_type X { /* ... */ };
    void swap(X&, X&);   // optimized swap for N::X
    // ...
}

void f1(N::X& a, N::X& b)
{
    std::swap(a, b);   // probably not what we wanted: calls std::swap()
}

void f2(N::X& a, N::X& b)
{
    swap(a, b);   // calls N::swap
}

void f3(N::X& a, N::X& b)
{
    using std::swap;  // make std::swap available
    swap(a, b);        // calls N::swap if it exists, otherwise std::swap
}

class Ptr { // a somewhat smart pointer
    Ptr(X* pp) : p(pp) { /* check */ }
    X* operator->() { /* check */ return p; }
    X operator[](int i);
    X operator*();
private:
    T* p;
};

class X {
    Ptr operator&() { return Ptr{this}; }
    // ...
};

void cout_my_class(const My_class& c) // confusing, not conventional, not generic
{
    std::cout << /* class members here */;
}

std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& os, const my_class& c) // OK
{
    return os << /* class members here */;
}

My_class var { /* ... */ };
// ...
cout << "var = " << var << '\n';

struct S { };
S operator+(S, S);   // OK: in the same namespace as S, and even next to S
S s;

S r = s + s;

namespace N {
    struct S { };
    S operator+(S, S);   // OK: in the same namespace as S, and even next to S
}

N::S s;

S r = s + s;  // finds N::operator+() by ADL

struct S { };
S s;

namespace N {
    bool operator!(S a) { return true; }
    bool not_s = !s;
}

namespace M {
    bool operator!(S a) { return false; }
    bool not_s = !s;
}

Vec::Vector operator*(const Vec::Vector&, const Mat::Matrix&);

void f(int);
void f(double);
auto f = [](char);   // error: cannot overload variable and function

auto g = [](int) { /* ... */ };
auto g = [](double) { /* ... */ };   // error: cannot overload variables

auto h = [](auto) { /* ... */ };   // OK

union Value {
    int x;
    double d;
};

Value v = { 123 };  // now v holds an int
cout << v.x << '\n';    // write 123
v.d = 987.654;  // now v holds a double
cout << v.d << '\n';    // write 987.654

// Short-string optimization

constexpr size_t buffer_size = 16; // Slightly larger than the size of a pointer

class Immutable_string {
public:
    Immutable_string(const char* str) :
        size(strlen(str))
    {
        if (size < buffer_size)
            strcpy_s(string_buffer, buffer_size, str);
        else {
            string_ptr = new char[size + 1];
            strcpy_s(string_ptr, size + 1, str);
        }
    }

    ~Immutable_string()
    {
        if (size >= buffer_size)
            delete[] string_ptr;
    }

    const char* get_str() const
    {
        return (size < buffer_size) ? string_buffer : string_ptr;
    }

private:
    // If the string is short enough, we store the string itself
    // instead of a pointer to the string.
    union {
        char* string_ptr;
        char string_buffer[buffer_size];
    };

    const size_t size;
};

union Value {
    int x;
    double d;
};

Value v;
v.d = 987.654;  // v holds a double

cout << v.x << '\n';    // BAD, undefined behavior: v holds a double, but we read it as an int

v.x = 123;
cout << v.d << '\n';    // BAD: undefined behavior

variant<int, double> v;
v = 123;        // v holds an int
int x = get<int>(v);
v = 123.456;    // v holds a double
double w = get<double>(v);

class Value { // two alternative representations represented as a union
private:
    enum class Tag { number, text };
    Tag type; // discriminant

    union { // representation (note: anonymous union)
        int i;
        string s; // string has default constructor, copy operations, and destructor
    };
public:
    struct Bad_entry { }; // used for exceptions

    ~Value();
    Value& operator=(const Value&);   // necessary because of the string variant
    Value(const Value&);
    // ...
    int number() const;
    string text() const;

    void set_number(int n);
    void set_text(const string&);
    // ...
};

int Value::number() const
{
    if (type != Tag::number) throw Bad_entry{};
    return i;
}

string Value::text() const
{
    if (type != Tag::text) throw Bad_entry{};
    return s;
}

void Value::set_number(int n)
{
    if (type == Tag::text) {
        s.~string();      // explicitly destroy string
        type = Tag::number;
    }
    i = n;
}

void Value::set_text(const string& ss)
{
    if (type == Tag::text)
        s = ss;
    else {
        new(&s) string{ss};   // placement new: explicitly construct string
        type = Tag::text;
    }
}

Value& Value::operator=(const Value& e)   // necessary because of the string variant
{
    if (type == Tag::text && e.type == Tag::text) {
        s = e.s;    // usual string assignment
        return *this;
    }

    if (type == Tag::text) s.~string(); // explicit destroy

    switch (e.type) {
    case Tag::number:
        i = e.i;
        break;
    case Tag::text:
        new(&s) string(e.s);   // placement new: explicit construct
    }

    type = e.type;
    return *this;
}

Value::~Value()
{
    if (type == Tag::text) s.~string(); // explicit destroy
}

union Pun {
    int x;
    unsigned char c[sizeof(int)];
};

void bad(Pun& u)
{
    u.x = 'x';
    cout << u.c[0] << '\n';     // undefined behavior
}

void if_you_must_pun(int& x)
{
    auto p = reinterpret_cast<std::byte*>(&x);
    cout << to_integer<unsigned>(p[0]) << '\n'; // OK; better
    // ...
}

// webcolors.h (third party header)
#define RED   0xFF0000
#define GREEN 0x00FF00
#define BLUE  0x0000FF

// productinfo.h
// The following define product subtypes based on color
#define RED    0
#define PURPLE 1
#define BLUE   2

int webby = BLUE;   // webby == 2; probably not what was desired

enum class Web_color { red = 0xFF0000, green = 0x00FF00, blue = 0x0000FF };
enum class Product_info { red = 0, purple = 1, blue = 2 };

int webby = blue;   // error: be specific
Web_color webby = Web_color::blue;

enum class Web_color { red = 0xFF0000, green = 0x00FF00, blue = 0x0000FF };

enum class Product_info { red = 0, purple = 1, blue = 2 };

void print(Product_info inf)
{
    switch (inf) {
    case Product_info::red: cout << "red"; break;
    case Product_info::purple: cout << "purple"; break;
    }
}

void Print_color(int color);

enum Web_color { red = 0xFF0000, green = 0x00FF00, blue = 0x0000FF };
enum Product_info { red = 0, purple = 1, blue = 2 };

Web_color webby = Web_color::blue;

// Clearly at least one of these calls is buggy.
Print_color(webby);
Print_color(Product_info::blue);

void Print_color(int color);

enum class Web_color { red = 0xFF0000, green = 0x00FF00, blue = 0x0000FF };
enum class Product_info { red = 0, purple = 1, blue = 2 };

Web_color webby = Web_color::blue;
Print_color(webby);  // Error: cannot convert Web_color to int.
Print_color(Product_info::red);  // Error: cannot convert Product_info to int.

enum class Day { mon, tue, wed, thu, fri, sat, sun };

Day& operator++(Day& d)
{
    return d = (d == Day::sun) ? Day::mon : static_cast<Day>(static_cast<int>(d)+1);
}

Day today = Day::sat;
Day tomorrow = ++today;

Day& operator++(Day& d)
{
    return d = (d == Day::sun) ? Day::mon : Day{++d};    // error
}

 // webcolors.h (third party header)
#define RED   0xFF0000
#define GREEN 0x00FF00
#define BLUE  0x0000FF

// productinfo.h
// The following define product subtypes based on color

enum class Product_info { RED, PURPLE, BLUE };   // syntax error

enum { red = 0xFF0000, scale = 4, is_signed = 1 };

constexpr int red = 0xFF0000;
constexpr short scale = 4;
constexpr bool is_signed = true;

enum class Direction : char { n, s, e, w,
                              ne, nw, se, sw };  // underlying type saves space

enum class Web_color : int32_t { red   = 0xFF0000,
                                 green = 0x00FF00,
                                 blue  = 0x0000FF };  // underlying type is redundant

enum Flags : char;

void f(Flags);

// ....

enum Flags : char { /* ... */ };

enum Bitboard : uint64_t { /* ... */ };

enum class Col1 { red, yellow, blue };
enum class Col2 { red = 1, yellow = 2, blue = 2 }; // typo
enum class Month { jan = 1, feb, mar, apr, may, jun,
                   jul, august, sep, oct, nov, dec }; // starting with 1 is conventional
enum class Base_flag { dec = 1, oct = dec << 1, hex = dec << 2 }; // set of bits

void send(X* x, string_view destination)
{
    auto port = open_port(destination);
    my_mutex.lock();
    // ...
    send(port, x);
    // ...
    my_mutex.unlock();
    close_port(port);
    delete x;
}

void send(unique_ptr<X> x, string_view destination)  // x owns the X
{
    Port port{destination};            // port owns the PortHandle
    lock_guard<mutex> guard{my_mutex}; // guard owns the lock
    // ...
    send(port, x);
    // ...
} // automatically unlocks my_mutex and deletes the pointer in x

class Port {
    PortHandle port;
public:
    Port(string_view destination) : port{open_port(destination)} { }
    ~Port() { close_port(port); }
    operator PortHandle() { return port; }

    // port handles can't usually be cloned, so disable copying and assignment if necessary
    Port(const Port&) = delete;
    Port& operator=(const Port&) = delete;
};

void f(int* p, int n)   // n is the number of elements in p[]
{
    // ...
    p[2] = 7;   // bad: subscript raw pointer
    // ...
}

void g(int* p, int fmt)   // print *p using format #fmt
{
    // ... uses *p and p[0] only ...
}

void f()
{
    int* p1 = new int{7};           // bad: raw owning pointer
    auto p2 = make_unique<int>(7);  // OK: the int is owned by a unique pointer
    // ...
}

template<typename T>
class X {
public:
    T* p;   // bad: it is unclear whether p is owning or not
    T* q;   // bad: it is unclear whether q is owning or not
    // ...
};

template<typename T>
class X2 {
public:
    owner<T*> p;  // OK: p is owning
    T* q;         // OK: q is not owning
    // ...
};

Gadget* make_gadget(int n)
{
    auto p = new Gadget{n};
    // ...
    return p;
}

void caller(int n)
{
    auto p = make_gadget(n);   // remember to delete p
    // ...
    delete p;
}

Gadget make_gadget(int n)
{
    Gadget g{n};
    // ...
    return g;
}

void f()
{
    int& r = *new int{7};  // bad: raw owning reference
    // ...
    delete &r;             // bad: violated the rule against deleting raw pointers
}

void f(int n)
{
    auto p = new Gadget{n};
    // ...
    delete p;
}

void f(int n)
{
    Gadget g{n};
    // ...
}

class Record {
    int id;
    string name;
    // ...
};

void use()
{
    // p1 might be nullptr
    // *p1 is not initialized; in particular,
    // that string isn't a string, but a string-sized bag of bits
    Record* p1 = static_cast<Record*>(malloc(sizeof(Record)));

    auto p2 = new Record;

    // unless an exception is thrown, *p2 is default initialized
    auto p3 = new(nothrow) Record;
    // p3 might be nullptr; if not, *p3 is default initialized

    // ...

    delete p1;    // error: cannot delete object allocated by malloc()
    free(p2);    // error: cannot free() object allocated by new
}

void func(const string& name)
{
    FILE* f = fopen(name, "r");            // open the file
    vector<char> buf(1024);
    auto _ = finally([f] { fclose(f); });  // remember to close the file
    // ...
}

void func(const string& name)
{
    ifstream f{name};   // open the file
    vector<char> buf(1024);
    // ...
}

void fun(shared_ptr<Widget> sp1, shared_ptr<Widget> sp2);

// BAD: potential leak
fun(shared_ptr<Widget>(new Widget(a, b)), shared_ptr<Widget>(new Widget(c, d)));

shared_ptr<Widget> sp1(new Widget(a, b)); // Better, but messy
fun(sp1, new Widget(c, d));

fun(make_shared<Widget>(a, b), make_shared<Widget>(c, d)); // Best

void f(int[]);          // not recommended

void f(int*);           // not recommended for multiple objects
                        // (a pointer should point to a single object, do not subscript)

void f(gsl::span<int>); // good, recommended

class X {
    // ...
    void* operator new(size_t s);
    void operator delete(void*);
    // ...
};

void f()
{
    X* p1 { new X };              // bad, p1 will leak
    auto p2 = make_unique<X>();   // good, unique ownership
    auto p3 = make_shared<X>();   // good, shared ownership
}

void f()
{
    shared_ptr<Base> base = make_shared<Derived>();
    // use base locally, without copying it -- refcount never exceeds 1
} // destroy base

void f()
{
    unique_ptr<Base> base = make_unique<Derived>();
    // use base locally
} // destroy base

shared_ptr<X> p1 { new X{2} }; // bad
auto p = make_shared<X>(2);    // good

unique_ptr<Foo> p {new Foo{7}};    // OK: but repetitive

auto q = make_unique<Foo>(7);      // Better: no repetition of Foo

#include <memory>

class bar;

class foo {
public:
  explicit foo(const std::shared_ptr<bar>& forward_reference)
    : forward_reference_(forward_reference)
  { }
private:
  std::shared_ptr<bar> forward_reference_;
};

class bar {
public:
  explicit bar(const std::weak_ptr<foo>& back_reference)
    : back_reference_(back_reference)
  { }
  void do_something()
  {
    if (auto shared_back_reference = back_reference_.lock()) {
      // Use *shared_back_reference
    }
  }
private:
  std::weak_ptr<foo> back_reference_;
};

// use Boost's intrusive_ptr
#include <boost/intrusive_ptr.hpp>
void f(boost::intrusive_ptr<widget> p)  // error under rule 'sharedptrparam'
{
    p->foo();
}

// use Microsoft's CComPtr
#include <atlbase.h>
void f(CComPtr<widget> p)               // error under rule 'sharedptrparam'
{
    p->foo();
}

void sink(unique_ptr<widget>); // takes ownership of the widget

void uses(widget*);            // just uses the widget

void reseat(unique_ptr<widget>&); // "will" or "might" reseat pointer

class WidgetUser
{
public:
    // WidgetUser will share ownership of the widget
    explicit WidgetUser(std::shared_ptr<widget> w) noexcept:
        m_widget{std::move(w)} {}
    // ...
private:
    std::shared_ptr<widget> m_widget;
};

void ChangeWidget(std::shared_ptr<widget>& w)
{
    // This will change the callers widget
    w = std::make_shared<widget>(widget{});
}

void share(shared_ptr<widget>);            // share -- "will" retain refcount

void reseat(shared_ptr<widget>&);          // "might" reseat ptr

void may_share(const shared_ptr<widget>&); // "might" retain refcount

// global (static or heap), or aliased local ...
shared_ptr<widget> g_p = ...;

void f(widget& w)
{
    g();
    use(w);  // A
}

void g()
{
    g_p = ...; // oops, if this was the last shared_ptr to that widget, destroys the widget
}

void my_code()
{
    // BAD: passing pointer or reference obtained from a non-local smart pointer
    //      that could be inadvertently reset somewhere inside f or its callees
    f(*g_p);

    // BAD: same reason, just passing it as a "this" pointer
    g_p->func();
}

void my_code()
{
    // cheap: 1 increment covers this entire function and all the call trees below us
    auto pin = g_p;

    // GOOD: passing pointer or reference obtained from a local unaliased smart pointer
    f(*pin);

    // GOOD: same reason
    pin->func();
}

auto sum = accumulate(begin(a), end(a), 0.0);   // good

auto sum = accumulate(v, 0.0); // better

int max = v.size();   // bad: verbose, purpose unstated
double sum = 0.0;
for (int i = 0; i < max; ++i)
    sum = sum + v[i];

vector<string> read1(istream& is)   // good
{
    vector<string> res;
    for (string s; is >> s;)
        res.push_back(s);
    return res;
}

char** read2(istream& is, int maxelem, int maxstring, int* nread)   // bad: verbose and incomplete
{
    auto res = new char*[maxelem];
    int elemcount = 0;
    while (is && elemcount < maxelem) {
        auto s = new char[maxstring];
        is.read(s, maxstring);
        res[elemcount++] = s;
    }
    *nread = elemcount;
    return res;
}

void func(bool flag)    // Bad, duplicated code.
{
    if (flag) {
        x();
        y();
    }
    else {
        x();
        z();
    }
}

void func(bool flag)    // Better, no duplicated code.
{
    x();

    if (flag)
        y();
    else
        z();
}

void use()
{
    int i;    // bad: i is needlessly accessible after loop
    for (i = 0; i < 20; ++i) { /* ... */ }
    // no intended use of i here
    for (int i = 0; i < 20; ++i) { /* ... */ }  // good: i is local to for-loop

    if (auto pc = dynamic_cast<Circle*>(ps)) {  // good: pc is local to if-statement
        // ... deal with Circle ...
    }
    else {
        // ... handle error ...
    }
}

void use(const string& name)
{
    string fn = name + ".txt";
    ifstream is {fn};
    Record r;
    is >> r;
    // ... 200 lines of code without intended use of fn or is ...
}

Record load_record(const string& name)
{
    string fn = name + ".txt";
    ifstream is {fn};
    Record r;
    is >> r;
    return r;
}

void use(const string& name)
{
    Record r = load_record(name);
    // ... 200 lines of code ...
}

void use()
{
    for (string s; cin >> s;)
        v.push_back(s);

    for (int i = 0; i < 20; ++i) {   // good: i is local to for-loop
        // ...
    }

    if (auto pc = dynamic_cast<Circle*>(ps)) {   // good: pc is local to if-statement
        // ... deal with Circle ...
    }
    else {
        // ... handle error ...
    }
}

int j;                            // BAD: j is visible outside the loop
for (j = 0; j < 100; ++j) {
    // ...
}
// j is still visible here and isn't needed

map<int, string> mymap;

if (auto result = mymap.insert(value); result.second) {
    // insert succeeded, and result is valid for this block
    use(result.first);  // ok
    // ...
} // result is destroyed here

template<typename T>    // good
void print(ostream& os, const vector<T>& v)
{
    for (gsl::index i = 0; i < v.size(); ++i)
        os << v[i] << '\n';
}

template<typename Element_type>   // bad: verbose, hard to read
void print(ostream& target_stream, const vector<Element_type>& current_vector)
{
    for (gsl::index current_element_index = 0;
         current_element_index < current_vector.size();
         ++current_element_index
    )
    target_stream << current_vector[current_element_index] << '\n';
}

void use1(const string& s)
{
    // ...
    tt(s);   // bad: what is tt()?
    // ...
}

void use1(const string& s)
{
    // ...
    trim_tail(s);   // better
    // ...
}

void complicated_algorithm(vector<Record>& vr, const vector<int>& vi, map<string, int>& out)
// read from events in vr (marking used Records) for the indices in
// vi placing (name, index) pairs into out
{
    // ... 500 lines of code using vr, vi, and out ...
}

if (readable(i1 + l1 + ol + o1 + o0 + ol + o1 + I0 + l0)) surprise();

struct foo { int n; };
struct foo foo();       // BAD, foo is a type already in scope
struct foo x = foo();   // requires disambiguation

// somewhere in some header:
#define NE !=

// somewhere else in some other header:
enum Coord { N, NE, NW, S, SE, SW, E, W };

// somewhere third in some poor programmer's .cpp:
switch (direction) {
case N:
    // ...
case NE:
    // ...
// ...
}

char *p, c, a[7], *pp[7], **aa[10];   // yuck!

auto [iter, inserted] = m.insert_or_assign(k, val);
if (inserted) { /* new entry was inserted */ }

template<class InputIterator, class Predicate>
bool any_of(InputIterator first, InputIterator last, Predicate pred);

bool any_of(input_iterator auto first, input_iterator auto last, predicate auto pred);

double scalbn(double x, int n);   // OK: x * pow(FLT_RADIX, n); FLT_RADIX is usually 2

double scalbn(    // better: x * pow(FLT_RADIX, n); FLT_RADIX is usually 2
    double x,     // base value
    int n         // exponent
);

// better: base * pow(FLT_RADIX, exponent); FLT_RADIX is usually 2
double scalbn(double base, int exponent);

int a = 10, b = 11, c = 12, d, e = 14, f = 15;

auto p = v.begin();      // vector<DataRecord>::iterator
auto z1 = v[3];          // makes copy of DataRecord
auto& z2 = v[3];         // avoids copy
const auto& z3 = v[3];   // const and avoids copy
auto h = t.future();
auto q = make_unique<int[]>(s);
auto f = [](int x) { return x + 10; };

template<class T>
auto Container<T>::first() -> Iterator;   // Container<T>::Iterator

auto lst = { 1, 2, 3 };   // lst is an initializer list
auto x{1};   // x is an int (in C++17; initializer_list in C++11)

// ...
forward_iterator auto p = algo(x, y, z);

std::set<int> values;
// ...
auto [ position, newly_inserted ] = values.insert(5);   // break out the members of the std::pair

int d = 0;
// ...
if (cond) {
    // ...
    d = 9;
    // ...
}
else {
    // ...
    int d = 7;
    // ...
    d = value_to_be_returned;
    // ...
}

return d;

void f(int x)
{
    int x = 4;  // error: reuse of function argument name

    if (x) {
        int x = 7;  // allowed, but bad
        // ...
    }
}

struct S {
    int m;
    void f(int x);
};

void S::f(int x)
{
    m = 7;    // assign to member
    if (x) {
        int m = 9;
        // ...
        m = 99; // assign to local variable
        // ...
    }
}

struct B {
    void f(int);
};

struct D : B {
    void f(double);
    using B::f;
};

void use(int arg)
{
    int i;   // bad: uninitialized variable
    // ...
    i = 7;   // initialize i
}

void use(int arg)   // OK
{
    int i = 7;   // OK: initialized
    string s;    // OK: default initialized
    // ...
}

widget i;    // "widget" a type that's expensive to initialize, possibly a large trivial type
widget j;

if (cond) {  // bad: i and j are initialized "late"
    i = f1();
    j = f2();
}
else {
    i = f3();
    j = f4();
}

pair<widget, widget> make_related_widgets(bool x)
{
    return (x) ? {f1(), f2()} : {f3(), f4()};
}

auto [i, j] = make_related_widgets(cond);    // C++17

auto [i, j] = [x] { return (x) ? pair{f1(), f2()} : pair{f3(), f4()} }();    // C++17

widget i = uninit;  // bad
widget j = uninit;

// ...
use(i);         // possibly used before set
// ...

if (cond) {     // bad: i and j are initialized "late"
    i = f1();
    j = f2();
}
else {
    i = f3();
    j = f4();
}

class X {
public:
    X(int i, int ci) : m2{i}, cm2{ci} {}
    // ...

private:
    int m1 = 7;
    int m2;
    int m3;

    const int cm1 = 7;
    const int cm2;
    const int cm3;
};

constexpr int max = 8 * 1024;
int buf[max];         // OK, but suspicious: uninitialized
f.read(buf, max);

constexpr int max = 8 * 1024;
int buf[max] = {};   // zero all elements; better in some situations
f.read(buf, max);

string s;   // s is default initialized to ""
cin >> s;   // s expands to hold the string

int i;   // bad
// ...
cin >> i;

int i2 = 0;   // better, assuming that zero is an acceptable value for i2
// ...
cin >> i2;

error_code ec;
Value v = [&] {
    auto p = get_value();   // get_value() returns a pair<error_code, Value>
    ec = p.first;
    return p.second;
}();

Value v = [] {
    auto p = get_value();   // get_value() returns a pair<error_code, Value>
    if (p.first) throw Bad_value{p.first};
    return p.second;
}();

int x = 7;
// ... no use of x here ...
++x;

string s;
// ... no use of s here ...
s = "what a waste";

SomeLargeType var;  // Hard-to-read CaMeLcAsEvArIaBlE

if (cond)   // some non-trivial condition
    Set(&var);
else if (cond2 || !cond3) {
    var = Set2(3.14);
}
else {
    var = 0;
    for (auto& e : something)
        var += e;
}

// use var; that this isn't done too early can be enforced statically with only control flow

int x {f(99)};
int y = x;
vector<int> v = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};

vector<int> v1(10);    // vector of 10 elements with the default value 0
vector<int> v2{10};    // vector of 1 element with the value 10

vector<int> v3(1, 2);  // vector of 1 element with the value 2
vector<int> v4{1, 2};  // vector of 2 elements with the values 1 and 2

int x {7.9};   // error: narrowing
int y = 7.9;   // OK: y becomes 7. Hope for a compiler warning
int z {gsl::narrow_cast<int>(7.9)};    // OK: you asked for it
auto zz = gsl::narrow_cast<int>(7.9);  // OK: you asked for it

auto p = new vector<int> {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};   // initialized vector
D::D(int a, int b) :m{a, b} {   // member initializer (e.g., m might be a pair)
    // ...
};
X var {};   // initialize var to be empty
struct S {
    int m {7};   // default initializer for a member
    // ...
};

auto x1 {7};        // x1 is an int with the value 7
auto x2 = {7};      // x2 is an initializer_list<int> with an element 7

auto x11 {7, 8};    // error: two initializers
auto x22 = {7, 8};  // x22 is an initializer_list<int> with elements 7 and 8

auto fib10 = {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55};   // fib10 is a list

struct Z { explicit Z() {} };

Z z1{};     // OK: direct initialization, so we use explicit constructor
Z z2 = {};  // error: copy initialization, so we cannot use the explicit constructor

template<typename T>
void f()
{
    T x1(1);    // T initialized with 1
    T x0();     // bad: function declaration (often a mistake)

    T y1 {1};   // T initialized with 1
    T y0 {};    // default initialized T
    // ...
}

void use(bool leak)
{
    auto p1 = make_unique<int>(7);   // OK
    int* p2 = new int{7};            // bad: might leak
    // ... no assignment to p2 ...
    if (leak) return;
    // ... no assignment to p2 ...
    vector<int> v(7);
    v.at(7) = 0;                    // exception thrown
    delete p2;                      // too late to prevent leaks
    // ...
}

void f(int n)
{
    const int bufmax = 2 * n + 2;  // good: we can't change bufmax by accident
    int xmax = n;                  // suspicious: is xmax intended to change?
    // ...
}

void use()
{
    int i;
    for (i = 0; i < 20; ++i) { /* ... */ }
    for (i = 0; i < 200; ++i) { /* ... */ } // bad: i recycled
}

void write_to_file()
{
    std::string buffer;             // to avoid reallocations on every loop iteration
    for (auto& o : objects) {
        // First part of the work.
        generate_first_string(buffer, o);
        write_to_file(buffer);

        // Second part of the work.
        generate_second_string(buffer, o);
        write_to_file(buffer);

        // etc...
    }
}

const int n = 7;
int m = 9;

void f()
{
    int a1[n];
    int a2[m];   // error: not ISO C++
    // ...
}

const int n = 7;
int m = 9;

void f()
{
    array<int, n> a1;
    stack_array<int> a2(m);
    // ...
}

widget x;   // should be const, but:
for (auto i = 2; i <= N; ++i) {          // this could be some
    x += some_obj.do_something_with(i);  // arbitrarily long code
}                                        // needed to initialize x
// from here, x should be const, but we can't say so in code in this style

const widget x = [&] {
    widget val;                                // assume that widget has a default constructor
    for (auto i = 2; i <= N; ++i) {            // this could be some
        val += some_obj.do_something_with(i);  // arbitrarily long code
    }                                          // needed to initialize x
    return val;
}();

#define Case break; case   /* BAD */

#define CAT(a, b) a ## b
#define STRINGIFY(a) #a

void f(int x, int y)
{
    string CAT(x, y) = "asdf";   // BAD: hard for tools to handle (and ugly)
    string sx2 = STRINGIFY(x);
    // ...
}

enum E { a, b };

template<int x>
constexpr const char* stringify()
{
    switch (x) {
    case a: return "a";
    case b: return "b";
    }
}

void f()
{
    string s1 = stringify<a>();
    string s2 = stringify<b>();
    // ...
}

#define PI 3.14
#define SQUARE(a, b) (a * b)

constexpr double pi = 3.14;
template<typename T> T square(T a, T b) { return a * b; }

#define forever for (;;)   /* very BAD */

#define FOREVER for (;;)   /* Still evil, but at least visible to humans */

#define MYCHAR        /* BAD, will eventually clash with someone else's MYCHAR*/

#define ZCORP_CHAR    /* Still evil, but less likely to clash */